Global meta-analysis of digital divide in psychiatric population from 2004 to 2023

This meta-analysis identified forty-eight unique samples (total number of participants =10,324) which reported rates of smartphone ownership (SO), current, and daily internet usership (IU) among adults with psychiatric disorders between 2004 and 2023. SO increased from 32% in 2012–2013 to 77% in 2020–2021; current IU rose from 65% in 2010–2011 to 87% in 2018–2019; daily IU grew from 30% in 2010–2011 to 58% in 2016–2017. Compared to US national data, the gap has narrowed by 8.9% for SO since 2012 and 10% for current IU since 2010. Individuals who are older, male, less educated, unemployed, and with psychosis diagnosis were at-risk of various digital disengagement. At the macro-level, regional income inequality was also associated with IU. Although the usage and device gaps have been substantially narrowed, continued monitoring is needed to ensure sustained improvements. The highly heterogeneous studies highlighted the need of establishing standardized outcome metrics to enhance cross-study comparability.